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32
.Linguistics/Design_features_of_language.md
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---
tags:
- Linguistics
---
The following properties are widely believed by linguists to be the defining hallmarks of spoken language. They were originally formulated by [Charles Hockett](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Hockett). They provide away of distinguishing linguistic behaviour from the other behaviours of organisms that may be communicative but not linguistic. For example the dances that bees do to inform other bees about the location of nectar or a dog dropping a ball at your feet.
## Displacement
Human language can talk about things that are beyond the immediate here and now. It can express concepts which transcend the current location or circumstances of the speakers (for example abstract ideas, past events, future events). For instance two people could be at a watercooler in a work environment but this doesn’t mean they must be talking about the watercooler, they could be talking about the causes of the French Revolution.
[Hockett's design features - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockett%27s_design_features)
## Arbitrariness of the sign
## Duality of patterning
Speech can be analysed on two levels at once:
1. As made up of meaningless elements (i.e a finite inventory of phonemes)
1. As made up of meaningful elements (i.e an infinite array of morphemes)
>
> Spoken languages are composed of a limited set of meaningless speech sounds that are combined according to rules to form meaningful words
## Reflexivity
In essence, the ability of speakers of language to engage in linguistics: to use language to talk about language. Due to reflexivity humans can describe what language is, talk about the structure of language and discuss the idea of language with others, using language.
## Additional features
Add shorter notes on additional features listed by Hockett

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.Linguistics/Morphology.md
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---
tags:
- Linguistics
- morphology
---
Morphology is the linguistic study of words.
We can distinguish two meanings of ‘word’:
* The big notion (lexemes):
* notion of something we can look up in a dictionary. Lexicographers describe words as **the largest unpredictable combination of form and meaning.** In this context words are *lexemes* or *lexical items* which comprise a *lexicon* (dictionary)
* The smaller notion (morphemes):
* morphemes are the **smallest unpredictable combinations of form and meaning**. Linguists call these units morphemes and the study of them is morphology
For example *RABBIT HOLE* when viewed as a lexeme is a single word. We have used spaces but we could have used a hyphen to separate the words. In German, compound words are simply squashed together with no space. Viewed morphologically, it actually comprises two morphemes *RABBIT* and *HOLE* (which also have several meanings) which together make up a larger morpheme.
In contrast DEEP and HOLE are both lexemes but DEEPHOLE is not.
Consider now FALLING. This is a single lexeme yet it comprises two morphemes. In contrast to RABBIT HOLE both morphemes (FALL and ING) are not lexemes (only FALL is) however ING does have a meaning, denoting the duration of a process or some related modification of a verb.